Extended Project- E-Sports and Gaming

Hey guys, this is the extended project I chose to do for school. Its by no means perfect at all, its just a summary of a few things that I thought were good to highlight, and was definitely something I had fun writing. Hope yall enjoy reading it =]

How have games, gaming and e-sports changed over recent years?

Introduction
When someone mentions gaming, what immediately springs to mind? What do people see? It would not be surprising if most would come up with the image of a teenager stuck in a darkened room, staring at a screen at 3am, drooling from his mouth and having school the next morning. Or perhaps a young, socially awkward and overweight child with glasses, who rarely leaves his seat and shouts at anyone who disturbs him. These types of people would then understandably be the target of teenage peers, who would make fun of the said “nerds” who “have no friends”.

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While these stereotypes may be true in certain circumstances, this seems a rather outdated way of seeing things when one sees the world of games today. For instance, with the birth of new technologies and subsequently new markets, games are now readily available and appeal to a much larger slice of the population. Nowadays, we see families all joining in to play games together like Guitar Hero, and people keeping fit using motion-orientated games like Wii Fit, showing very clear change. A recent study in 2011 by Newzoo [11] [28] (International Games Market Data) showed that over half of the UK’s population are active gamers (those who spend money on games), and it is impossible that they all fit the stereotypes mentioned above.
Fundamentally, games are just another medium through which game developers can convey their ideas. As a form of interactive media, they can involve their audience more in their storyline than other media types. Some would venture to call it an art form, much like films, whereby they can connect with us and bring us through an entire range of emotions, from invigorating joy (like the Circle of Life scene in the Lion King and defeating the final boss in Street Fighter) to tear-jerking sorrow (like the film Titanic, and the climactic scene in Final Fantasy VII), and as a method of telling stories, it is still developing. Since games are a fairly young medium, it will probably require more time before games become gradually more accepted, rather than something the kids should be discouraged from.
In terms of personal and psychological development, Anderson et al (2003) stated that “Research on violent television and films, video games and music reveals unequivocal evidence that media violence increases the likelihood of aggressive and violent behaviour in both immediate and long-term contexts.” This highlights the idea that media of all kinds is having an effect on us (not just video games), although this may well also be due to changing attitudes, more freedom of speech, and could even be linked back to secularisation. This could also be attributed to the increase in aggressive tendencies in media compared to books; for example, watching Lord of the Rings is more likely to increase aggression than reading the books due to the focus on violence, showing that video games are definitely not the only reason for societal changes in that regard [29]. So, in this way, games have grown to affect our tendencies, just like television and the internet. Thus, the question lies in just how much video games have affected our society in comparison to other forms of media.

Health and Relationships
Examining the typical stereotype for gamers, it seems that people might think that gaming is a waste of time, bad for health and dulls the mind. In fact, when done properly, and in decent moderation (as in all things), it can bring a tremendous number of benefits. In terms of physical skills, it helps with dexterity, hand-eye co-ordination and aids use of a musical instrument (although they are mutually beneficial), while it builds on certain other attributes such as strategic thinking, focus and sportsmanship.
For instance, when playing RTS (Real-Time Strategy) games at high levels, APM (actions per minute, as in a mouse click or a press of a key) can rise into the hundreds, so dexterity, accuracy, co-ordination and efficiency are all developed. Professional gamers can have APM over 400, so for example, 420 APM would mean 7 actions per second. This is a part of the reason why Korean pro gamers (in particular) go to good lengths to keep themselves healthy and fit, so as to maximise the ability to remain in good form, be able to keep up their APM and minimise risk of injury. Like the more physical sports, players must keep up good fitness to help not only their play, but to set a good example to others. Key presses must be on the dot, and mouse clicks have to be exceptionally precise, whether they may be controlling armies of units in Warcraft, or attempting a headshot in CounterStrike.

Similarly, the strategic thinking necessary to juggle all the factors that are required to keep up in the game whilst under pressure by other players/characters can be very difficult. However, when this is mastered, it can most definitely be applied to other situations. When involved in a large project, with multiple factors to take into account, being able to devise a clear plan and execute several aspects of it at once can be invaluable. In most competitive games, be they fighting, driving, shooting etc. being able to plan and predict what the other player might try to do can be very useful, particularly in business, relationships and sport. A study in Connecticut (Yale, November 2010) involving over 4000 public high-school students found that boys who played video games typically reported a higher grade average and were less likely to smoke, whereas female gamers were more likely to get into fights or carry a weapon to school [7]. This shows that video games can be prosocial in some circumstances and contradicts Anderson’s claim.
In terms of health regarding eyesight, it is true that computers lead to eyesight damage over time; an inescapable fact. However, this argument could then be applied to secretaries, web designers, people who work at the stock exchange, to name a few, as well as those who watch TV and movies. These are all seen as normal activities, and gaming does not require any more leisure screen time, nor any that is more intense. If one is worried about children gaming too much, too often, then perhaps the responsibility lies in the parents to restrict the amount of accessible time the child gets. For those who are older, it ultimately becomes their responsibility regarding the amount of time they are exposed to screens. New methods are being developed to reduce the impact of screens on the eyes, including special pinhole sunglasses that only focus light into the centre of your eye [10], and various methods already exist such as sitting in a well-lit environment and adjusting screen brightness [17].
Furthermore, regarding excessive video game playing, new research centres and health clinics have been set up in South Korea to help facilitate and educate young people who play too much. A South Korean legislation and judiciary committee voted unanimously in 2011 to adopt a law that prevents children under 16 from playing games online after midnight, showing that top-down legislative measures are being taken to help prevent game addiction [9][11].
If parents are concerned about their children becoming game addicts, then perhaps they should look more at other potential factors that cause it, rather than necessarily just blaming the new age medium for all their troubles. The following quote addresses this issue very well:

“The adults misunderstood becoming a progamer as becoming a game addict. I think the biggest reason why some youth become game addicts is because they do not receive attention from their parents. I think it is because the parents never know how their children are doing, and how they are living. If the child does not have many friends and is introverted, there is a higher chance that one will fall into game addiction. It is because one can find many friends through the Internet. Those that normally don’t talk much can find online games more appealing, where they can communicate without letting themselves be known… If games are a way for the parents and children to communicate, then I feel that they can naturally narrow the generation gap... If they converse while playing games, increase the time spent together, and build up their self-control by playing games during allotted times, according to the rules that they created together, there will not be any game addicts. But still the parents are too busy blaming others. They raise their voices, saying, ‘Our child is good, but because the game is violent, our child is being spoiled.’”
- From the translated autobiography of Lim Yo Hwan, aka SlayerS_`BoxeR`, professional Starcraft player, e-sports pioneer, the first e-sports millionaire [4]

He continues to explain that he became a pro gamer because he could earn a living doing what he wanted to pursue, and contrasts this with game addicts, who throw away everything they have because they can do nothing else but play games. He argues that anyone can experience addiction at some point, whether it is chess, music, or alcohol, but the moment one falls into gaming, people assume that it is a mindless activity, something he feels is unfair[4].

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A very prominent psychological theory that could be applied to anti-social behaviour is the frustration-aggression hypothesis. Dollard et al (1939) proposed that if a goal could not be achieved and expected rewards were not gained, then frustration would occur, leading to aggressive behaviour. This would in turn lead to more frustration, and thus the cycle would begin [18]. This may apply to some games, such as Super Meat Boy and Dark Souls, where the game is designed to be incredibly difficult. For example, In Dark Souls, if you die, you can lose absolutely everything you have obtained in the game, which can understandably be frustrating to no end. However, it can be argued that these games targeted a specific market where gamers want the challenge, and revel in trying over and over again to be able to beat the seemingly invulnerable computer. In this case, players enjoy the game and would not be affected by them, while other players are less likely to choose a game that they cannot win without a lot more time and effort. In addition, the theory does not operationalise frustration by defining giving a measuring method and it appears reductionist since it is describing a complex human characteristic with only frustration.
A contrasting notion to this is the cathartic hypothesis, which infers that acting aggressively can be an outlet or release for pent up emotion. In essence, games can be played in order to “let off steam” so one can get back to a more stable level of functioning. It’s not hard to imagine games being played on a Friday evening in order to relax after a week of work. Research in this area has produced mixed results, as there have been studies that both support and contradict (Bushman, Baumeister, & Stack (1999)) this hypothesis and it appears that other factors have a dominant role to play in the link between catharsis and aggression [18].
Despite media sensationalism, there is no epidemic of people dying from playing games. There are odd single cases occasionally, the majority being in South Korea, but the numbers are still very low. More people die associated with electric fan issues In South Korea than video games and more people in the US have died from intoxicated water in the last decade than game addiction. Blaming games and TV for children spending 8 hours a day in front of a screen does not appear to be the issue, but it seems an issue of society and an avoidance of responsibility. Ultimately, the consequence of children spending too much time on media can sometimes be attributed to bad parenting, since games can be used as an easy “digital babysitter” by busy parents. Neither this, or a strict prohibition of games seems to work as a method of combating game addiction, but perhaps a middle way would be best, as suggested earlier by Yo Hwan. A little more engagement and education from parents (which may lessen any negative effects the game may have) might make games less of a solitary experience for children [14].
Bandura’s social learning theory supports the idea that games cause aggression (and Anderson’s point) because it states that people could learn aggressive behaviour through role models and observation (which could be the characters in-game or parental behaviour). When watching characters being aggressive and being rewarded for it (e.g. killing enemy creatures and levelling up), both direct and vicarious reinforcement occurs, and the player may learn that this is a desirable action. Anderson and Dill (2000) conducted a series of studies for this with American college students (using over 200 per study), where they tested each student for aggressiveness and asked them about previous delinquent behaviour as well as video game habits. It was found that those who played more violent video games at a school age were more aggressive, which suggests that violent games prime aggressive thoughts, which could then transfer into real life [18].
Nevertheless, there are still problems with this approach. Not all games reward one for being aggressive, and are more passive, strategic or sneaky. For example, the popular Ninja flash game requires no weapons of any sort and focuses only on avoiding enemies to reach the end of the level, rather like the classic Mario and Sonic games. Also, aggression is modelled on TV, but no-one really thinks too much about the effect that has on people. It could be argued that, since it is only a form of media, and not live, the effect of the modelling is diminished, due to a buffer effect between the character and the player. The study by Anderson and Dill was culturally and age biased, and thus not representative of those of differing ages and backgrounds, and susceptible to demand characteristics. Mankey would suggest a more dispositional explanation, whereby it is people with certain personalities that likely to be negatively affected by video games [30].

Technology and Society
The question with regards to our society is usually, “Do we want our society to head towards one where our younger population (and thus subsequently, those who will lead us in the future) is brought up wasting their time on video games (which is usually interchangeable with excesses of other forms of media)?” This is an interesting query, because the answer is integrated into our lives already. Over the last couple of decades, technology has advanced tremendously, from the first PC to internet connections to international communications networks and beyond. As a result, a global village has emerged, where people from all over the world have been brought closer to each other, able to see, hear and travel to each other much more easily. This notion, known as space-time compression, has been the basis for our rapid advances, particularly in the 21st century. Internet speeds have grown much more as well; the UK has 3Mbps on average, compared to 43Mbps in South Korea [2]. Our society is already beginning to adapt to all these advances in media, and it is arguable that games are just another part of this growth. It is perceivable that our politicians and leaders in the future will all have grown up with games, which might breed more understanding when it comes to policies and connections with younger people, as well as familiarity with technology as a whole.
Video games are now also being used in education, because the interactive and creative possibilities are so appealing to children. Ollie Bray is part of a program for games based learning called Consolarium, which participates in the compulsory curricular games design activities that schools in Scotland have adopted. He states that good pedagogy in games (e.g. Kodu), coupled with an appealing teaching method can help literacy and collaborative skills, while linking back to subject material at all points. This does not appeared to have increased violence and aggression, as Anderson had stated [8].

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Accordingly, games have grown along with technology. People all over the world can log on to community forums or sites, and keep in touch with the gaming world in an instant. They can catch up with current trends, discuss or learn new tactics, and challenge each other to games remarkably easily with today’s technology. But most importantly, gaming no longer has to be something one has to enjoy on their own. Gaming at home has become a social activity that players can enjoy together, something that they can watch, play and discuss collectively. Networks like PSN (77 million accounts) [25], Xbox Live (35 million) [26] and Battle.net (12 million active users) [23] let players communicate and play together, while community forums like TeamLiquid and PC Gamer encourage interaction between players and observers of all calibres. Guilds and teams can form, where people might play for fun, for a bit of competition, for belonging, or for money. Since voice communication programs have become commonplace, these players can work together more effectively to overcome objectives or contend more effectively against other teams, serving to bring players closer as a group.

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The table above [12] shows just how large games have become in our communities. These figures emphasise the spread of video games, the variety of platforms played upon, and the economic benefit that TNCs can reap as a result. It is a strong representation of the gaming population, and shows how much of the world can be connected by this common medium.
Cultural differences also have an impact on gamers, which could help explain differences (broadly) between the effect of games in eastern and western areas. It is clear that the context of Japanese media is very different from the contexts in the US in terms of what is accepted as the norm. Despite the similar amount of violence shown (Kodaira, 1998), the Japanese emphasise the consequences of violent actions more, especially the suffering of those involved. Furthermore, Japan has a more collectivistic society, with heavy emphasis on moral discipline and views of peace and non violence, which will skew general aggression results. As a result, people are more likely to examine actions in relation to other emotional perspectives, rather than just their own (as is generally seen in individualistic, western cultures). Most popular game genres could affect results too, as action and sports games in the US are very different to the more common RPG (role playing game) in Japan, which involve more scripts, in-depth storyline, co-operation and situational contexts. These background factors have led to a more diverse market, with heavy specialisations in preferred game genres, which, on account of globalisation, can be played by avid audiences all over the world. For example, Japan is very well known for the outstanding quality of its RPGs (like the Final Fantasy series) and danmaku (bullet hell) shooters (like the Touhou Project series), and so it markets these types of games with more emphasis. On the other hand, the USA might focus on FPS (first person shooter) and sports games more, creating a diverse, high-quality pool of international games that are made by those best suited to develop them [29].
The problem with studies on interactive media is that technology like this is still relatively new, and so there are fewer empirical studies than with television and film. While there have been several meta-analyses, their reliability has been questioned. Thus, there is a need for a new meta-analysis, to account for technological and social developments, as well as things that were not available before the studies were conducted. For instance, none of the prior studies into video games involved longitudinal studies, because none existed, although some have begun recently. Moreover, important questions can now be asked that can add detail to our knowledge of game effects, like, “Does player perspective (first person vs. third person) influence the degree to which video games affect us?” or, “Does exposure at certain ages affect people differently?” Thus, the results from previous studies need to be updated to fit the new era that gaming has entered [29].

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The Cognitive Neoassociationist Aggression model (CNA) states that whenever we use some cognitive construct, we become more likely to use anything we relate to it due to the association between them (Berkowitz, 1990), in which case, the types of games we play are important. Different memory constructs are cognitively linked to one another with bonds of varying strengths, and activating one construct may increase the accessibility of related constructs [18] [29]. One could say that, for some games, aggression is not really applicable, as we are unlikely to face hordes of angry goblins wielding a sword and a magical staff in real life, so we do not activate that memory construct. This could be more relevant to modern games that involve shooting, which can be related to real world situations, however rare. Grand Theft Auto is a big example of how this theory suggests that people link interaction with characters in game to interaction with people in society. In this case, it would be dependent on whether or not the player is rewarded for such actions, but it is true that more of these games are being played due to the popularity of games like Call of Duty and Saint’s Row, which would validate Anderson’s claim.

Furthermore, a potential consequence of having games that bring players into contact with many other gamers is that deindividuation can occur. This is when, due to the anonymity and being part of a large group of people online, some players feel uninhibited when it comes to verbal abuse towards other players. They can feel that no consequences will reach them, so they “flame” other players or act in a bad mannered way (known as “bm”) [27], which is generally frowned upon by online communities. Official gaming organisations and forum moderators act on verbal abuse very strongly, encouraging a friendly, respectful environment. Griefing can also take place, whereby players intentionally irritate or harass other players by cheating, killing their own team members or not following the rules and standards set within the game, whether they are de jure or de facto. With a large number of administrators in online games nowadays, instances of poor behaviour occurring severe enough to merit punishment are decreasing, especially with the good examples that professional players continue to display.
A very recent, real case that brings this all to light is the U.S. Supreme Court decision to defend the constitutional right of games. Voting 7-2, they removed the 2005 Californian law that made selling violent games to minors illegal, placing them in the same category as pornography. Part of the decision report stated "Video games qualify for First Amendment protection. Like protected books, plays, and movies, they communicate ideas through familiar literary devices and features distinctive to the medium.” California was unable to prove why games were any different to other forms of media, interactive or not, and the argument for psychological harm did not go far either. "Psychological studies purporting to show a connection between exposure to violent video games and harmful effects on children do not prove that such exposure causes minors to act aggressively," said the court. "Any demonstrated effects are both small and indistinguishable from effects produced by other media." Indeed, the court even pointed out rather humorously that adventure books (e.g. Fighting Fantasy) already exist where violence and gore are present, and readers can choose their own actions. The weight of the decision passed is a critical point in continuing to see video games grow as a type of entertainment, a method of media, and an art form [6].

Professional Gaming
In terms of the competitive gaming scene, things have moved on considerably from the “That’s Incredible” First Video Game World Championship (ABC TV January 8th, 1983) [31]. For example, WCG initially had 174 competitors from 17 different countries with a total prize purse of $20,000. In 2006, the prize purse had risen to $462,000, and the event had grown to 9 different competitions, with 700 competitors from 70 different countries [24].
A fundamental component to competitive gaming was written about by Sean “Day[9]” Plott, who mentioned the notion of the marginal advantage:

“This embodies the notion that one cannot, and should not try to “win big.” In a competitive setting, the strong player knows that his best opponents are unlikely to make many exploitable mistakes. As a result, the strong player knows that he must be content to play with just the slightest edge, an edge which is the equivalent to the marginal advantage... After all, the match results only in a win or a loss; there are no “degrees” of winning. Therefore, at any given point in a game, the player must focus on making decisions that minimize his probability of losing the advantage, rather than on decisions that maximize his probability of gaining a greater advantage. In short, it is much more important to the expert player to not lose than it is to win big. Consequently, a regular winner plays to extend his lead in a very gradual, but very consistent manner.”
- Sean “Day[9]” Plott, competitive Starcraft player and analyst[19]

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He goes on to mention that all competitive games share three basic components, which are ambiguity of optimal play, diversity of play and allowance for skill. Essentially, there should be no obvious way to win (so there should be multiple ways to achieve a goal), diversity that allows strategies and innovation to flow (e.g. Marvel vs. Capcom 2 has 56 characters, and when players pick 3-man teams, there can be over 25,000 combinations) and a system that minimizes the influence of luck, so that skill is the predominant deciding factor. This then allows for more exciting play, tactical variety and differing styles to emerge [19].
Other factors are included in the rise of competitive play. Consistency allows higher quality of commentating and coaching, while accessibility lets everyone know what is happening, from seasoned audiences to those who are new to it. For example, televised professional poker used to only show the hands being played and no-one would know what was going on unless they played frequently themselves. However, there are now explanations, hand displays and percentage chances of wins, so that all audiences have a much clearer idea of the gameplay. Also, the human touch is an important, but overlooked dynamic; this is the notion that it is the players themselves that spectators follow, who make things exciting with their individualities and their trademarks, rather than the game itself. People can empathise more with the players, making the sport that much more compelling [15]. This is evident in Starcraft II, where some professional players have their own live video streams that people can follow live, and who have very identifiable personalities and play styles (e.g. EGIdrA, IMMVP).

The biggest example of these competitive aspects is Starcraft, which has been around for over 10 years and is now expanding to the West. Released in 1999, it exploded into an e-sport with a professional scene, 2 dedicated TV channels and a massive fan following. Recently, in 2010, Starcraft 2 came out and was a huge hit with fans, now boasting a spot at MLG tournaments.
The game itself appeals to gamers competitively because it is so balanced and fair. Being an RTS with 3 different races to choose from, each one has wildly different ways of doing things, but none are superior to the other, allowing for a vast variety of strategies, tricks and games. The metagame (thinking outside of the game, about what your opponent might think, what they might do to counter what you are doing, how to beat that etc.) is akin to chess grandmaster finals, while the skills and speed needed to play at such high speeds requires the grace of a grand pianist. Even at lower levels, the learning curve can be extraordinarily engaging, as one gamer wrote in an e-sports article: “I had no illusions that I’d ever join their ranks, but the sheer pleasure of nabbing tips and tricks that high-level players used, reappropriating them in my games, and watching myself get better was one that I couldn’t replicate.” [13]
The fact that Starcraft is an RTS means that observers can watch much more easily than, say, an FPS, since that would involve either a first person view of only one player, or floating around as a ghost observer, neither of which effectively captures all the action. As Rich McCormick, a Staff Writer for PC Gamer, said, “Take Starcraft II as an example: common sense says ten men kill five men when they’ve both got the same guns. A child could make the connection, and see why one player is doing notably better than the other... There are, of course, infinite layers of nuance behind each unit, action, and decision – but for the basics you don’t need a rulebook.” [13] It is games of this fashion that spawn tremendous fan support, international communities and a competitive gaming scene that gains popularity among players as well as casual observers.

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Consequently, from the perspective of gaming companies (and increasingly, big e-sports event organizers like MLG and GSL), the emerging advances in video game popularity present a massive market to be capitalized upon. Since games are so widely played, more genres, niche groups and higher-quality technological demands are being brought forth, which opens up countless business opportunities, while allowing for in depth story development from different perspectives and better experiences for players. For example, Amnesia: The Dark Descent is a recent survival horror game where the protagonist of the game is not able to wield any weapons at all, and must rely on escaping, evading and puzzle-solving to find their way through incredibly detailed environments. This is different from the usual survival horror games where the main character wades through hordes of undead with chainsaws and machine-guns, allowing for much more intense storytelling, fear effects and character progression.

With the growth of video games as an enterprise, many more jobs have been created, which offer a large amount of specialists the chance to engage their talents. The posts that need to be fulfilled include computer designers, programmers, artists, motion effect specialists, voice actors and many more, allowing more workers to pursue careers in the tertiary and quaternary sectors. This then has knock on effects on other stakeholders, such as publishers, advertisers and investors, whilst allowing money to trickle down within different economies. In 2011, EA projected $910-950m revenue for the June quarter, but instead reached $999m, with profits of $221m compared to forecasts of $145-175m [21]. This then measures up to the company Namco-Bandai, which earned $1.143b in that quarter, with $42.1m profit [22], which goes to show the massive amount of money being generated from this form of entertainment.
As mentioned before, competition between emerging games companies has not only given contesting prices and deals for consumers to benefit from, but it has also allowed more and more innovation to enter the gaming world, allowing for multiple genres which are all rapidly advancing to encompass all types of tastes. Improved graphics engines have allowed much more enriching and compelling experiences within worlds defined by the game, as well as improving the scope of what is possible to achieve. Sound technology has meant that games can now have fully fledged soundtracks as opposed to an 8-bit synth theme. Ironically, it is this constraint that has spawned some of the most classic and recognisable game themes around (like Mario), since not having the diversity of musical techniques available today forced the developers to create tunes that would be remembered [16]. An example of how music has developed is the Final Fantasy series, which is known for its amazing graphics and unforgettable storylines. The emotional musical soundtracks have been performed by orchestras (like the Eminence Orchestra, who play classical tracks featured in films, anime and video games) and composed into official soundtracks, which have been immensely popular, particularly ones like “To Zanarkand” and “Sephiroth’s Theme”. Musical achievements like this are icons of how culture can be spread to welcoming audiences that transcend international boundaries.

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Conclusion
To conclude, it is clear that the world of gaming has developed greatly, becoming a much more prominent form of media, as well as a worldwide phenomenon that draws people in, young and old. As shown, it can bring both benefits and adverse effects, as Anderson pointed out, but these are to varying levels and dependent on a great many factors that are being explored. Fundamentally, games are becoming a part of our entertainment, culture and cognitive development for the newer generations, and may yet grow into a recognised sport, open for all to compete in.

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Extended Project- E-Sports and Gaming

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