h, in a psychological occupation omenon of weight in social comparison 1 (1976) J otivation suggest youths’ school engagement, performance, and persistence in an academic task are linked to their beliefs about its purpose, meaning, and value, and their capability of doing it” (p. 1076). es toward schooling and achievement held by learners, parents, and peers ulture will be examined as confounding variables.J y conomi j y article, is illustrated in j y j j j academic achievement j j j tative proposal will be introduced by examining the theoretical paradigms underlying it in order to provide a framework from which to understand the study. xt of itative techniques. used in combination with quantitative data to gain a more comprehensive understanding in the present study. using it to improve the quantitative study. etter and Forzano (2008), quantitative research can be defined as research that is based on “measuring variables for individual participants or subjects to obtain scores, usually numerical values that are submitted to statistical analyses for summary and interpretation” (p. 593). ocial sciences to only report the findings of a study ses, a way of thinking and theorising (Jansen, 2005) where each framework or paradigm guides the types of questions asked and methodologies used (Jordaan, 2009). of the proposal f psychological research. h viour ’ ‚ ” h consists l subjects and the value in performing well at school (Papanastasiou & Zembylas, 2002). Bh looks at observable human behaviour Bh to put effort into studying in order to perform well on tests and exams (Fuligni, 1997). L 2009). In terms of this quantitative theory, the behaviour of studying hard and achieving academically is seen to be y partially L ryday environments (Jordaan, 2009). L y will be motivated and able to achieve academically. Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, for example, looks at intelligence as a mental activity that interacts wit eeds, which states that individuals need to have basic needs such as food and shelter ual nistic paradigm is thus fundamental to t nistic paradigm paradigm is relevant to this theory of academic achievement oward from a family with a low socioeconomic status, they can still perform as well as students from ed in Jansen, 2005) ÂÂ Â~ hasises the ÂÂ Â~ c realms and the family to the wider community and society (Jordaan, 2009). In terms of this theory of academic achievement, ÂÂ Â~ s, the intra-psychic ÂÂ Â~ status, culture and ethnicity on their academic achievement. Ë ~ l context (Jordaan, 2009). In the present study, the effect t will be studied (Jordaan, 2009), while attitudes are the primary variable, which means that the direct effect of attitudes on academic achievement will be examined. s the complexity inherent in the relationship.D this study is due to the complexity and all-encompassing nature of attitudes. chievement and the school is a vehicle for upward mobility and success. This attitude is more universal, reflecting the dominant cultural ideology, with little variation, and is held widely by all ethnic groups. These abstract attitudes predictor of academic achievement, according to Mickelson. Learners hold another attitude simultaneously termed T ±ô T ±ô 2003; ±ô 003). T ±ô achievement is particularly relevant. Personal attitudes are acquired, in part, through ±ô ues and attitudes that places great importance on the role of education in adv ±ô & Zembylas, 2002). A lack of belief in the value of education and parental scepticism of one’s child’s academic competence, on the other hand, creates an atmosphere that fosters academic underachievement (Brady, 1998). also play a role in the academic achievement of learners. Bogenschneider (1997) showed how ±ô student’s academic achievement. Q {{ eeh ee ed {{ eeh ee s and behaviours Q {{ eeh ee en, Chang and He (2003) academic achievement and competence were two factors which were found to play a role in the formation and maintenance of peer groups, according to similar academic abilities between the members. ption of certain norms and values that facilitate academic achievement, such as peer support in the form of doing homework projects, studying together and sharing information (Wentzel & Caldwell, 1997). tive effect on academic achievement, as when -- ccording to -- rom the classroom and the school, and may withdraw, leading to a decrease in academic achievement. -- as, 2002). For example, if a student performs well in the past, their attitude towards achievement and working hard in the future will be more positive. A personal positive attitude towards the school environment can ents -- atistics there is a gap of approximately $14 000 to $16 000 between the income of African American and white families due to unemployment and poverty (Brown & Jones, 2004). This extreme difference in social and economic context is used to explain the phenomenon of the P x interaction with attit ial structure, based on their access to, or control over, wealth, prestige, and power” (p. 5). t SES is distributed along racial lines” (Taylor & Yu, 2009) and since then, culture and class have become impossible to separate. ns have the highest rates of unemployment (Dias, 2005). efficacy” (Taylor & Yu, 2009, p. 7). Here the relationship between are antisocial and disruptive tend to be prevalent, and discipline becomes exasperatingly hard to maintain” (p. 7). This quote supports the expectation that rlinked. c achievement, and thus leads to a decrease in academic achievement. The second theory focuses on resiliency which leads to individuals of a low socioeconomic status developing a positive attitude towards academic achievement, thus improving academic achievement. school disadvantage (Goddard, Salloum & Berebitsky, 2009) r structural and educational obstacles, may try to protect their self-concept and self-esteem by placing less value on those areas in which they are expected to perform poorly (Chavous et al., 2003). Therefore, when academic success and achievement is viewed as the exclusive domain of whites from a higher social class, the lower classes will develop cultural values where education is not prized (Chavous et al., 2003). of being discriminated against believe that education will not lead to social mobility, or an improvement in socioeconomic status. They therefore develop an oppositional view of school and achievement. Brown and Jones (2004) state that e of both historical and present devaluation, African American students do not necessarily subscribe to the ‘American achievement ideology’ and thus are at much higher risk to t academic achievement as a basis for self-esteem” (p. 250). If students perceive there to be limited educational and occupational opportunities in society they may be less motivated to achieve acad ain that “African American youth who recognise societal inequity in economic and social mobility for their group may come to feel that education will have little usefulness for future life and occupational pursuits” (p. 1076). In a study by Flores-Gonzalez (2005) for example, she describes the typica ast to this ., 2003). es have shown that individuals from high and low socioeconomic statuses actually perform similarly on maths and English courses (Fuligni, 1997). tude can socioeconomic status, as a more comprehensive explanation of academic achievement.
he dependent variable (Jordaan, 2009). An alternative term for a moderator variable is a confounding variable a threat to the study’s internal validity (Gravetter & Forzano, 2006). For a study to have internal validity there must be no alternative explanation for the relationship between the variables (Gravetter & Forzano, 2006). lture, intelligence and English language proficiency have been identified as efore be taken into consideration q in the context of the ual attitudesined attitudes held by a group of people) idual attitudes are also shaped by unique experiences and environments ed to the cultural attitude only. ent study, culture will be investigated as the es, particularly the United States as discussed by Fuligni (1997) cks) are seen as inferior and are paralleled to lower classes characterised by devaluation, violence, economic deprivation, unemployment and limited access to education (Bhattacharyya, Gabriel & Small, 2002). These ethnic and class differences are evident in a post-Apartheid South Africa, where those previously disadvantaged non-white individuals are still struggling to achieve equality in terms of occupational and educational opportunities. It is this association between culture or ethnicity and socioeconomic status (the secondary independent variable), that makes culture a pertinent moderator variable to take into consideration. nd India gave more encouragement and placed greater importance on the academic success of their children, as a means to improve their status, in comparison to native students. Cheng and Chan (2003) and Chen, Chang and He (2003) found that Chinese students have higher school attitude scores than students from Western cultures, as they are taught from their youth about the importance of performing well at school in order to improve their social status, develop strong character and glorify their family and ancestors. Kao and Tienda (1995) and Rumbaut (1995, cited in Fuligni, 1997) both found that Asian students outperformed those students from Latin America, Africa and the Caribbean. This highlights the relationship between culture and the primary independent variable of the attitudes of parents towards academic achievement and success. i, 1997). This peer support is in the form of group study sessions and helping each other complete assignments. This example clearly shows that the mediating relationship between culture and the attitudes of peers towards academic achievement and success is a significant one. gained in one’s school career (Jensen, 1972). Deurwaarder (1993, as cited in Van Jaarsveld, 2000) makes a distinction between intelligence, achievement and ability. Intelligence refers to the more abstract and general verbal, special and numerical abilities. Aptitude refers to comprehension and problem-solving abilities. Lastly, achievement refers to concrete knowledge gained in specific subject fields and particular curricula. Only achievement tests are seen to be predictive of academic success due to the specificity of the content. However, this predictive validity is contingent on uniform prior learning experiences. Therefore, it is evident that different cultural and educational backgrounds play a moderating role in the relationship between intelligence and achievement. (Van Jaarsveld, 2000) o 25% in various studies (Downey, Mountstephen, Lloyd, Hansen, Stough, 2007). Park and Kim (2006) explain that traditionally Koreans and other East Asian cultures reject the idea of innate ability and intelligence as leading to academic achievement. According to them, parental support and self-regulation are more important. Therefore culture as a moderating variable with regards to intelligence and ac (Brady, 1998). ement because these people with high EI are able to determine which emotions and qualities facilitate the completion of various tasks, decision-making, planning, coping with stressful events such as studying for exams and emotional regulation. (Downey et al., 2007) Emotional deficits such as poor self-esteem, reduced self-control, anxiety, depression and an inability to cope with frustrations are linked to learning problems and an inability to adjust, reach one’s academic potential and self-actualise (Brady, 1998). diverse society, there are also diverse languages. In South Africa for example, we proudly boast the use of eleven official languages. However, one challenge to educational adjustment is that in many cultures, English is not the language spoken at home (Fuligni, 1997). Fuligni (1997) explains that if students come from English speaking homes and have more educated parents, then they will perform better in school. . Therefore language proficiency is needed for the individual to be able to form attitudes and assign meaning to objects, people and events. Social interaction also plays a role in the development of language proficiency (Brady, 1998). Therefore, there exists a complex relationship between language proficiency as a mediating variable, and the independent variables of attitudes and the social context (socioeconomic status and culture). HHHH schooling: A proximal B L LL niversity of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa. L LL s. B L LL a context: Mediating and moderating effects on relations between academic achievement and social functioning in Chinese children. ional and Psychological Measurement nial Conference A. J. (1997). 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